Reconstruction after the Civil War Essay Example for Free

Reconstruction after the Civil War EssayBlack semipolitical activity during the Reconstruction after the Civil War came from the experience of after war slavery or what was called servitude. A strong sense of community grew proscribed of shared racial oppression and contributed to the formation of a political stand for the desolate freedman. Even though this formation was important it really did non make out very strong after the Civil War. Emancipation was confusing to most opaques and the wartime disorder didnt help the uncertain situation. Freedmen moved very cautiously to look for what changes were happening in their lives. They were more interested in individual measures to enhance their freedom and avoided becoming politically active. One of the freedmens first desires was to leave everything having to do with slavery behind. They wanted to define their new status different than the slavery they had known. What many blacks did first after becoming free was to leave the plantation that had enslaved them. many looked for family and other headed for towns and cities, but most wanted to leave. Autonomy was a key issue that arose out of emancipation.At first the freedmen hoped their needs would be met by the national official government. Inspired by wartime confiscation of planters reduce, and the promise of the Freedmens Bureau, the former slaves waited for their forty acres and a mule. The Freedmens Bureau was a temporary histrionics set up to aid the former slaves by providing relief, education, legal help, and assistance in get alonging attain or employment and came from the Reconstruction period. The problem of how to reconstruct the compass north after the Souths military defeat was won of the most difficult challenges faced by American policymakers.The Constitution didnt provide any guidelines. The farmers had not anticipated a division of the country into warring sections. Emancipation was a major force for the labor unionern war a ims, but the problem became large when questions arose on how far the federal government should go to secure freedom and civil rights for former slaves. The debate that followed led to a major political crisis. Advocates of a minimal Reconstruction policy favored quick restoration of the Union with no protection for the freed slaves beyond the prohibition of slavery.Proponents of a more radical policy wanted readmission of the southern states to be dependent on plugs that loyal men would displace the Confederate higher ups in position of business leader and that blacks would assume virtually of the basic rights of American citizenship. The White House wanted the lesser approach and congress endorsed the more radical approach of Reconstruction (Divine, Breen, Fredrickson Williams, 1987, p. 457). The tension between the prexy and telling on how to reconstruct the Union began during the war.Lincoln never had a plan for bringing the states back together, but he did take some ini tiatives that indicated a more lenient and forgiving policy towards grayers who gave up the struggle and denounced slavery. Lincoln issued a resolution of Amnesty and Reconstruction in 1863 that offered a full absolve to all grayers, except certain classes of Confederate leaders, who would take an oath of allegiance to the union and acknowledge the legality of emancipation (Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 11). This policy was meant to shorten the war.The President hoped that granting exculpate and political recognition to oath-taking minorities would weaken the southern cause by making it easy for disillusioned confederates to switch sides. But Congress was unhappy with the Presidents reconstruction experiments and in 1864 refused to seat the Unionists elected to the House and Senate from Louisiana and Arkansas. A minority of congressional re worldans, who were strong anti-slavery radicals, wanted protection for black rights as a precondition for the readmission of the southern states.The se republican militants were upset because Lincoln had not insisted that the geological formation creators provide for black suffrage. The dominate view in Congress was that the southern states had definitely forfeited their place in the Union and that it was up to Congress to decide when and how they would be readmitted. Congress passed a Reconstruction line of its own in 1864. The Wade-Davis observation which required that fifty percent of the voters must take an oath of future loyalty before the restoration process could begin (Divine Breen, Fredrickson Williams, 1987 p.452). Those who would swear that they had never willingly supported the Confederacy could vote in an election for delegates to a constitutional convention. The bill did not require black suffrage, but it did give federal courts the power to enforce emancipation, but Lincoln used a pocket veto and refused to sign. Congress and the President remained stalled on the Reconstruction issue for the rest of the war. But during the know months in office Lincoln showed some desire to compromise.He showed much interest in getting the governments in Louisiana and Arkansas that he started, with the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction in 1863, to gaining full recognition but Lincoln was warming up to the ideal of including black suffrage in all of this. unhappily Mr. Lincoln died before anyone knew the outcome of the struggle between congress and this man. Andrew Johnsons attempt at reconstruction also put him on the defensive with Congress creating the most serious crisis in the history of relations between the executive and legislative branches of the federal government.During the war Johnson endorsed Lincolns emancipation policy and carried it into effect. He viewed it primarily as a means of destroying the power of the planter class rather than as recognition of black humanity (Divine Breen, Fredrickson Williams, 1987). Johnsons presidency was a huge surprise and really wasnt suppose t o happen considering that he was a southern Democrat and a fervent blank supremacist. But the ensconce of the problem was that he disagreed with the majority of Congress on what Reconstruction was supposed to accomplish.A believer of the Democratic states rights he wanted to restore the prewar barbaric system as quickly as possible, with the only changes being that states would no longer have the right to legalize slavery or to secede. Many Republicans believed that if the old southern ruling class were to gain power they would devise a plan to subjugate blacks. Emancipation had removed the three-fifths clause of the constitution that counted slaves as only three-fifth of a person now they were to be counted in determining representation.Congress favored a Reconstruction policy that would give the federal government authority to limit the role of ex-confederates and provide protection for black citizenship (Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 48). The disagreement between the President and Cong ress became irreconcilable in early 1866 when Johnson vetoed deuce bills that had passed with overwhelming Republican support (Fitzgerald, 1989, 81). The first was to extend the life of the Freedmens Bureau and the second was a civil rights bill meant to nullify the black codes and guarantee to the freedmen full and equal benefit of all laws and security of self and property as the white had.Johnson was successful at blocking the Freedmens bureau bill but later a modified version did pass. The Civil Rights Act won the two-thirds majority needed to override the presidents veto. The main accompaniment was that recovery would not happen or even begin until a new labor system replaced slavery. It was widely assumed in both the North and South that southern prosperity would continue to depend on cotton and that the plantation was the most efficient way for producing the crop.But rebuilding the plantation providence was hindered by lack of nifty, the belief of southern whites that blac ks would work only if agonistic, and by the freedmens resistance to labor conditions that were still basically slavery (Divine, Breen, Fitzgerald Williams, 1987). Blacks wanted to be small independent farmers rather than plantation laborers and they believed that the federal government would help them to attain their dreams.General Sherman, who had huge numbers of black fugitives follow his army on a famous march, issued an order in 1865 that set digression the islands and coastal areas of Georgia and South Carolina for only black occupancy on forty acre plots. The Freedmens Bureau was given control of hundreds of thousands of acres of abandoned or confiscated land and authorized to make forty acre grants to black settlers for a three year period. afterwards that they would have the option to buy at low prices. Over forty thousand black farmers worked on three hundred thousand acres of land they thought were going to be theirs (Berlin, 1976, p.141). But the dream of forty acres a nd a mule the government promised was not going to happen. President Johnson pardoned the owners of most of the land assigned to the ex-slaves by Sherman and the Freedmens Bureau and along with the failure of congress to propose an effective program of land confiscation and redistribution the land blacks could not gain title to the land they had been working. The ex-slaves even without land and in poverty still were reluctant to settle down and commit their selves to wage labor for their former masters.They were hoping for something let on and some still expecting grants of land while others were just trying to increase their bargaining power. The most common form of agricultural employment in 1866 was cause labor. Under this system workers would commit themselves for a year in return for fixed wages that the bulk of would be paid after harvest. Many planters were attached to make hard bargains, abuse their workers or cheat them at the end of the year. The Freedmens Bureau took t he role of reviewing the contracts and enforcing them.Buy the bureau officials had differing notions of what it meant to protect blacks from exploitation. Some stood up strongly for the rights of the freedmen others served as allies of the planters, rounding up available workers, coercing them to sign contracts for low wages, and keeping them in line (Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 138). After 1867 the bureaus captivate was fading and a new arrangement come from direct negotiations between planters and freedmen. Unhappy with gang labor and constant white supervision, blacks demanded sharecroppers status.This meant that they wanted the right to work a small piece of land independently in return for a fixed share of the crop produced on it and that was ordinarily half. With the shortage of labor this gave the freedmen enough leverage to force this arrangement on those planters who were unwilling. But many landowners found it to their advantage because it did not require much capital and force d the tenants to share the risks of crop failure or a fall in cotton prices. Blacks at first viewed sharecropping as a step up from wage labor and a direction towards land ownership, but in reality it was just a new kind of slavery (Fitzgerald, 1989, p.140). Croppers had to live on credit until their cotton was sold, and planters or merchants seized the chance to give them at high prices and huge rates of interest. Creditors were entitled to deduct what was owned to them out of the tenants share of the crop and this left most sharecroppers with no net profit at the end of the year, some with debt that had to be worked off the next year (Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 141). Blacks abject to cities and towns found themselves living in an increasingly segregated society.The Black Codes of 1865 attempted to require separation of the races in public places but most of the codes were set aside by federal authorities as violations of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, but that was defeated by private in itiatives and community pressures. In some cities blacks successfully resisted forced separation on streetcars by appealing to the military during the brief period when it exercised authority or by organizing boycotts. But they found it almost impossible to gain admittance to most hotels, restaurants, and other privately owned establishments that catered to whites.When black supported Republican governments came to power in 1868, some of them passed civil rights acts requiring equal access to public facilities, but little efforts were made to enforce the legislation (Berlin, 1976, p. 249). Some forms of racial separation were not openly discriminatory and blacks accepted or even endorsed them. Freedmen who had belonged to white churches as slaves welcomed the chance to join all black denominations which gave freedom from white dominance and a more congenial style of worship.The first schools for ex-slaves were all black institutions established by the Freedmens Bureau and various no rthern missionary societies (Berlin, 1976, p. 285). Blacks had been denied any education at all after the war and blacks viewed separate information as an opportunity rather than as a form of discrimination. The Freedmens Bureau was a government agency that was to give assistance and protection to the Southern ex-slave after the Civil war. It gave assistance to the relief of the needy of both white and black. Its main job was to improve labor relations, administering justice and developing a black educational system.The Bureau influence though suffered in the North and was mortally damaged in the South by corruption, especially those that were connected with promising Republican control of the black vote. These excesses strengthened resistance to black suffrage and encouraged secret organizations like the Ku Klux Klan (Sehat, 2007). The bureau was established under the War Department and was suppose to exist for one year after the war. It was strengthened and its life extended in 1 866 when Johnson attempted to veto. Its Director was a Christian general by the induce of Oliver O.Howard and functioned through ten districts. Each had an assistant commissioner with the power to control all individuals that were refugees and freedmen. The Freedmens Bureau became the strongest single instrument of Reconstruction. Even though it was ended in 1869 its educational activities were extended to 1872 and its soldiers bounty payments till 1872 and had an expenditure of about $20,000,000 (Divine Breen Fredrickson Williams, 1987). Reconstruction failed because it was inadequately motivated, conceived and enforced.But the causes of this failure remain in shadow. Some explain it in terms of an underlying racism that prevented white Republicans from identifying fully with the cause of the black equality. Others use the clash between the class interests of those in charge of implementing and managing Reconstruction and the sorry people of the South who were supposed to benefi t. But the basic issue raised by Reconstruction was how to achieve racial equality in America and that was not resolved during that era and is still in conflict even today.ReferenceBerlin, I. (1976). Slaves without masters. New York Vintage Books Divine, R. A. , Breen, T. H. , Fredrickson, G. M. and Williams, R. H. (1987). America past and present, 2nd. Ed. Illinois Scott , Foresman and Company. Fitzgerald, M. W. (1989). The union league movement in the deep south. Baton Rouge Louisiana State University Press. Gibson, G. J. (1957). Lincolns League The league movement during the Civil War. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Illinois. Sehat, D. ( 2007, May). The civilizing mission of Booker T. Washington. Journal of Southern History, 73(2), 323-362.

HR Strategic aspects of the labour market and Managing organisational performance Essay Example for Free

HR Strategic aspects of the labour market and Managing organisational surgical operation EssayThe economic events occurring during the last 2 decades provide indications and evidences that the ara of human resourcing has signifi rousetly channelized in response to the emerging complexities of the discipline. Perhaps, among the primary components of corporate organization, the dynamics of human resourcing appear to be the most challenge as well as complex. Experts in the bea of Human Resource Management (HRM) invariably agree that the surging demand for a new organisational role for the human groovy.Even the usually common terminologies used to describe the HRM processes, such as labor racking, training and development, performance evaluation, have been recycled to outsourcing, learning and gain or performance management schemes. Many even replaced, such as personnel to human resource to human capital, to describe in more advance(a) way, the new character of human reso urcing. Still, HRM practitioners argon of the opinion that changes will continue to pervade the HR area and whitethorn soon take or uprise into new competencies again.Torringtons Views The HRM discipline and the Labour market Torrington presents the burgeoning labour swerves confronting many organizations as propounded by theorists and practitioners. Indeed, the complexities of human resourcing are invariably revealed in the documented HR practices compiled by the author, who has been keenly observing that the area of human resource management is beginning to undergo a form of transformative process where the task s, positions and the organization nearly mutates into its more sophisticated form.Based on data provided by the author and taken from a report, there is a general shortage of workers especially the unripe domain. In the area of healthcare, the National Health Service (NHS) is spending ? 1bn annually on temporary, delegation and locum staff. According to Laing and Bu isson, well known heathcare analysts, the demand for agency staff is expected to increase across public and private healthcare sector in response to the long-standing manpower shortages in practically every healthcare occupation.The author adds that the size of the market for manpower has risen by more than four times during the two decades commencing from 1992. Even the NHS had to triple their bud clear expenditures during the same period. Torrington estimates this sector is worth ? 2. 4bn in the market. However, the core of the problem has defected to the quality of care that many temporary staff provide, thus the decision to reduce manpower outsourcing, Here, the bring to get split deals from agencies is becoming paramount as new resources of human resourcing in this sector is being addressed.The author concludes by proposing an appropriate response system with flexible staffing solutions. Torrington highlights the strategic aspects of resourcing to respond effectively to th e critical messages demanded and manifested by the labor market trends. Here, he analyzes the need to adopt certain flexible resourcing choices that will localise attention either to the ready-made or home grown human capital. The labor market trends bespeak of the dilemma faced by the human resourcing assiduity in general.A number of recommendations are provided to address this set of HR issues the retention strategy. The retention indicators point to a disturbing trend at the charts. The issue of retention and its corresponding techniques and strategies has been brought into the open as a result of the need to assuage the cost of transfers, job and even career shifts. The author brings the issue of derangement rates and trends as indicative of HR instability in many sectors while exacting some forms of costs on the organization as a result of new rounds of resourcing and the need to adopt staff retention strategies.Torrington insists that organization strategies versus HR stra tegy issues not only should be HR-driven but primarily essential mutually provide a perfect fit. The author discloses the strategic aspects of performance how these are driven by HR policies and processes as practiced. This is implied to mean that a change in perspective be made in the human resourcing involvement from taking control of the employment processes to a more significant HR function of managing performance.True enough, this shift in focus may have been long wanted to smoothen human capital transitions to work excellence. This further suggests that efforts are better spent on ensuring that performance management becomes the primary driver of the HR function. A number of firms have found better insights into this form of HR shift considering that the new HR performance processes adds relevance and more meaningful roles for HR theorists and practitioners rather than just the documentary and aspect legalese of human resourcing.The author proposes the adoption of a performa nce management system that translates into organizational performance anchored on the knowledge and learning processes as HR initiatives. Here, the proactive roles expected of the HR practitioners are deemed enjoin towards gradually converting the company into a learning organization where the human capital competencies are planned, managed and nurtured. performance management system indeed is a critical need as with the 360 degree feedback system.Conclusion Torrington proposes a two-dimensional performance judgment system based on individual and team perspectives. He emphasizes management of employee performance guided towards organizational and personal goals and marks and an objective appraisal system to measure extent of accomplishment based on target mise en scene. A sequential and in stages approach is propounded with a component critique system based on an overarching 260 degree feedback system.A comparison and contrasting view of performance management system (PMS) and its environment of procedures indicate that the PMS has and is being widely used in organizations out to harness the potentials of its people. The degree of effectiveness indicates the variability of conceptualization and implementation, but hitherto removes the major irritants in people management that ultimately affect the relationship as well as the performance dimensions of each of the component of the human capital sponsored primarily by senior management.Thus, the proactive nature of the PMS approach entitles it to wider adoption and desirability among organizations aiming to address many of its human resourcing issues. Subject 2 Performance Management System Linking Organizational Goals Torrington outlines the essential factors in managing organisational performance showing how a Performance Management System (PMS)links to organisational goals.Concrete and abstract benefits and disincentives are identify and benchmarked with industry practices guided by the universal princip les and theories of performance management. As practiced, performance management systems commence from the goal and target setting based on the requirements of the job. Here, employees and workers are clarified in the objectives of their positions, the requisite competence, and the learning and growth perspectives if the job as well as the compensation based on how the organization assesses the relative most-valuable of the task.The use of the PMS has been tested widely and has proven to be more effective than the traditional evaluation system. This is because of the inclusion of a compendium of measures that ensures that organizational goals are aligned with the specific tasks assigned to the employee. From the targets, agreements on the degree and how these targets are achieved under quality processes are laid down and the PMS target setting contract is accomplished.Thus, the use of the PMS allows the following benefits to accrued to both the worker and the organization among oth ers, expectations are clear and scope and limitations of the jobs are understood by both sectors employees can clearly predict and manage their own levels of performance based on targets as well as the needed support to accomplish the tasks there is an objective system of evaluation and appraisal that removes subjectivity and abstract judgments when provided with an incentive and reward systems, PMS becomes effective as a tool and basis of rewards and incentives and, there is a better working relationship between the worker and his superior based on earlier agreements and covenants.Likewise, PMS considers possible constraints and limitations on both sides, thus alternative measures are agreed for the degree of performance resulting from the occurrences of such constraints and impediments. For the organization, the benefits are clear in terms of stronger motivation on the worker budgeting can be co-ordinated into the system through measurable and appropriate inventive and rewards sy stem the subsequent appraisal and evaluation system allows for an ideal atmosphere for the discussion of the evaluation and appraisal results to encourage future performance based on areas that additionally needed reinforcement and support. In addition, PMS encourages both individuals and teams to be evaluated based on targets that are aligned with the organizational goals.On the other hand, the disadvantages of adopting a Performance Management System (PMS) includes the requirement for a more detailed procedures and measurement system that may prove to be too elaborate and complex for the worker to understand and appreciate. Likewise, the process of documentation in support of the performance is considered difficult and tedious. Further there is no assurance that performance can indeed by achieved as there may be unforeseen circumstances not considered during the target setting completed before the start of the performance period. (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, Wright, 2008) Nonethele ss, there is a need to study the organizational culture on whether the latter would help the system or otherwise. ConclusionTaking into account the benefits and disadvantages of Performance Management Systems (PMS), the absence of a more measurable, objective and comprehensive system of measuring and evaluating performance is non-existence despite the social movement and utilization of good measuring tools and instruments. This is the complexity of the new HResourcing strategy that allows greater flexibility and uniqueness in the approach to managing performance. On the overall, the rationale for adopting PMS outlying(prenominal) outweighs the need to ignore the benefits provided by this new system. Often, the major constraint in adopting PMS is whether the organizational culture would allow such a change in the system. Thus, the efforts may indeed be tedious, but nonetheless, there is strong desirability in the system that will be more advantageous to every stakeholder in the PMS environment system.

Project cost management

excogitate cost counsellingIntroductionThe self- do externalize, development and implementation of hurtles argon very complex and at times dash tasks for many stand out managers. The sum of growth in competition and globalization, institutionalization of innovation-based economics, rapid development of technologies, the uses of outer resources, increase in the significance of customers focus and the shortening of products and go cycles means that cyphers cost anxiety has become a multifaceted issue for majority of businesses today. In essence, this has resulted in the need for the adoption and focus on forge based on cost direction of business activities. Indeed a haul of researchers emphasis the need for a multi- shake off environmental trouble of confounds that pays cognizance to the advert ingredients that result ensure for the succeeder in nominates.This paper will synthesis, analyze and dissect the key attributes that be seen to be inherently important for e nsuring effective intercommunicate cost management. Towards this, an insightful and succinct discussion of the following key factors for victorful travails shall be done appropriate higher-ranking management levels commitment to the project, adequate project funding, project necessitys analysis and specifications, stakeholders involvement, risks management and presence of a contingent plan. While several dimensions could be pursued under each element only a few(prenominal) will be highlightedEnsuring for effective project cost managementPhillips (1) illustrates that From IT to construction, nigh projects have to purchase materials routers and cables, shingles and cement, and so on we must(prenominal) invariably sully whatsoever things to complete the project sprain. Without even underlining the scope or schedule of a given IT project, funds must be availed and properly managed and appropriated to achieve the goals of the project. In the cost management of IT projects, th ere be three major accounts cost techniques that project managers should make use to effectively manage their projects. These include the Ballpark estimate, the budget estimate and the definitive estimate. According to Barkley (68) Ballpark estimate is also known as the rough order of magnitude (ROM)which is based on high-level objectives, provides a birds-eye view of the project deliverables, and has lots of wiggle room in that most ROM estimates are dependent on the industry and have a regorge of variances from -25% all the way to +75%.The budget estimate that is also known as the top down estimate is more than accurate than the Ballpark estimate and is always formulated at the beginning of the projects life. It includes a number of conditions just like the Ballpark estimate in that it takes into consideration a range of variances and assumptions that are characteristics of any projects estimation.The definitive estimate or bottom up estimate is the real opposite of the budget estimate (Haughey, 29). In effective cost management of an IT project, it is imperative that all the estimate methods are used to mitigate the effects of strike costs on the project. Baldwin, Rose-Anderssen, Ridgway, Allen, Lopez, Strathern, and Varga (1), neatly demonstrates that The definitive estimate requires a work breakdown structure (WBS) and a WBS is non a list of activities, it is a fine description of deliverables-oriented decomposition of the project scope.The forethought to the creation of goods and function and technologies has significantly increased over the last few years that have prompted and preconditioned the need for better and more effectual projects cost management. This call for give cognizance to the following key factorsSenior management supportThe success of projects will to a large extent rely on the interests, support and commitment of the senior management. This is in order to ensure that everybody in the project team and indeed the whole emplo yees are focused and committed. Most projects in organization are sometimes conceived, funded and developed without appropriate senior management involvement or approval. Armstrong (25) has for example noted that some projects go forward without the management cl early(a) conceptualizing what the project entails. A distinction between mere approval and commitment should be clearly discerned so that the projects run smoothly. According to Dennis (87) and Blair (13), most projects fail when the senior management lacks a clear understanding and a paucity of the projects perceived benefits, risks and difficulties. This is fundamental because the management plays a central role in costs appropriations and budget allocations for project activities. This means that while the projects approval may actually have been acquired, in the euphoria of getting the projects approved some of the risks may be ignored or glossed over. Efficient project cost management especially in the field of IT shou ld however ensure that projects approvals are not based on hype and false calculations but on a framework that encapsulates a realistic assessment of the projects benefits, risks and costs.Adequate financing or funding for the projectThis forms the fundamental groundwork for the accomplishment any IT related projects objectives and goals. Most IT projects being initiated will require some substantial funding and resources deployment because they are always characterized by abnormally huge overhead costs. However, Kerzner (11) and Loosemore, Raftery and Reilly (161), have noted that ample project funding is not in itself a panacea to projects success. It has been advanced that inadequate project funding will most invariably result on delivery of less than promised. The realization of projects success has been positively correlated with efficient resources management and budget controls.According to Armstrong (32) effective resources management as well as its impact on the compatibi lity between the costs management and project value accumulation has been empirically proved in literature. Researchers visualize that in order to avoid the gap between the organizational strategies and the limited resources, it is purposive that available resources are reviewed and aligned to the budget in a broadloom manner. This means that a lot necessarily to be arranged before and also during projects executions.A clear delineation of all the resources that are essential to the successful running of the project and a formulation of a budget that captures all the needs and requirements is therefore important. Armstrong (33), succinctly state that A project funding should be seen as a continuing and flexible process in that while a reasonable estimate of project expense must be made to obtain initial approval, this figure should not be considered as the final project cost. This point is further buttressed by Meyer (172) in illustrating that As the align scope of an IT project is revealed, the project manager can more accurately identify project expenses and recalculate the costs at several checkpoints in the project life cycle so that the new figures are communicated to senior management.Requirements analysisRequirements analysis should be carried out in order to develop the architectural design or frameworks of the specific IT project for the initiation and inception of the project. This calls for a thorough discussion between the clients and/or the stakeholders in order that all the salient issues are brought to the fore and the project is set off on a sound footing. According to Armstrong (27), client consultation at all the stages of an IT project development should always be done in order to avoid situations where repeated references to the project requirements are the case or projects are discontinued entirely.Requirements analysis should be detailed and the analysis or the project manager should visit, communicate and discuss the project requirem ents with the clients on a conclusive and comprehensive manner. A clear delineation of what will be delivered or not within projects scope should ideally be done. Project managers will attest to the fact that taking a thorough requirement analysis ahs the benefit of arriving at an accurate estimate on a project. This will reduce the effects of time wasted in search of more funds and convincing clients and other stake holders to increase funding after its initiation. In addition to the above, it comes with the added advantage of taking due care of crash programs and gum olibanum protects the projects from the effects external factors (Meyer, 171).Development of a comprehensive project plan and its cost componentsBasically, there are three main benefits to be realized through and through the development of a clear, comprehensive and elaborate project plan. One such benefit is that through adequate planning, the planners are able to present a clear and well documented or properly focu sed understanding of project. Secondly, adequate planning ensures that all issues are raised to help avoid instances of overlooking some issues that may later prove problematic. Finally, adequate planning reinforces and helps build confidence in the success of the project. Jiang and Gary (20) elucidates that project planning should never be viewed as a waste of time. This point has been buttressed by Armstrong (29) who has advanced that a very strong correlation between the lengths of time allocated to the project planning and the ultimate projects success abides.Stakeholders involvementThe attainment of all the stakeholders involvement has been cited as an important ingredient in the success of IT projects in organizations. This means that every stakeholder in the organization is seen in addition own the project. This ensures that there are no complains about the project contents and performance when it is completed. This becomes more poignant when it is noted that projects warran ts large investment of resources such as time, efforts and money. The involvement of the employees, internal customers and other important stakeholders should therefore be paid utmost cognize (Raz, Erez, 48). Frequent project status reporting should accompany the turn up of the project and this should be done on as a regular interval in as far as is soundly possible. As early as the projects life, frequent reporting should help spot and identify adverse issues, as well as how these can be overcome. Jiang and Gary (31) have noted that it is not important that regular updates are provided but the accuracy of such reporting be the case so as to ensure that the status of the projects progress are accurate, realistic and timely. jeopardize assessment in an IT projectIt is important that a detailed risks assessment is carried in an IT project so as to ensure for the success of a project. Essentially, risks assessment may fall into two categories, i.e. the more usual and obvious risks an d the risks that may be generated from the functions and requirements of a particular problem (Raz, Erez, 53). A devout approach to project management requires carefully considering and addressing these risks with internal customers and senior management as part of the projects approval process and if the risk analysis leads to a finding not to move forward, it is much better for everyone involved that the decision is made sooner, rather than later (Raz, Erez, 55).Armstrong (34) has advised that it is prudent to consider the possibility of some failures in the projects that would call for the development of contingent plans to overcome difficult situations should they arise and a project may have to incorporate items that were overlooked, or changes in the business needs associated with the project. This may result in delay of some projects that were dependent on this project or indeed some other business activities. Successfully and efficient project cost management will theref ore entail the development of contingent plans to mitigate against such occurrences.In the course of an IT project development, a lot of issues and difficulties may arise. Thus, while some problems may have been anticipated, some occurrences, the need to clear to meet deadlines among others may create insurmountable pressures and tensions. These must be rationalize through the adoption of sound cost management approaches that ensures that issues and matters arising are addressed and mitigated. In some instances, continued top management support must be continually sought so that commitment to the project remains true, and un-anticipated funding requirements are met or delays in operations are understood. In obtaining senior management support, project managers must be willing to present an accurate picture of the potential difficulties inherent in the project in that insofar as is practical, senior management must be given a realistic assessment of the potential for difficulty and be willing to stay the course if things go slander (Dennis, 95).ConclusionEffective project cost management is a multifaceted issue especially in an IT related project and difficulties abide in the assignment and management of all potential difficulties and the ramifications that are associated with the successful development, budget appropriation and implementation of projects. This will depend to some extent on the size of the project where it is seen that the larger the size, the greater the probability of unseen contingencies. In large IT projects for example, the task can prove overwhelming and massive to coordinate. Organizations attempting to find and resolve all IT project difficulties and potential difficulties may not find the issues presented here as all inclusive as there are a lot more issues that must be paid cognizance for the efficient project cost management. However, while the draft does not strive for perfection, it can nonetheless be adjudged that paying attent ion to the issues raised, a project manager will be better prepared and knowledgeable enough that undoubtedly greatly enhances the likelihood of a successful project and cost management strategies.WORKS CITEDArmstrong, Mark. 2007. Simplified Risk Assessment. Engineering management journal.10, 1 19-24.Baldwin, James, S., Rose-Anderssen, Chris., Ridgway, Keith., Allen, Peter, M., Lopez, Alvaro.,Strathern, Mark and Varga, Liz. (2006). Management Decision-Making Risk Reduction Through Simulation.Website http//www.palgrave-journals.com/rm/journal/v8/n4/pdf/8250020a.pdfBarkley, Bruce. 2004. Project risk management. McGraw-Hill Professional.Blair, Gerald, M. 2007. Planning a Project. http//www.see.ed.ac.uk/gerard/Management/art8.html?http//www.ee.ed.ac.uk/gerard/Management/art8.htmlDennis, Lock. . 2007. Project management. 9th edition. London Cooper LybrandHaughey, Duncan. 2000. Planning a Project using a Work disruption Structure Logic Network. Website http//www.projectsmart.co.uk/plann ing-a-project-using-a-work-breakdown-structure-and-logic-network.htmlJiang, James, J. and Gary, Klein. Software project risks and development focus. Project management journal, 32, 1 4-9. 2001.Kerzner, Harold. Project management A Systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. 9th edition. New York John Willey Sons. 2006.Loosemore, Mark, Raftery, Justin and Reilly, Chris. Risk management in projects. Taylor Francis. 2006.Meyer, Brad, C. Project Costs and Crashing. 2002. Retrieved on February 22, 2010 from Website http//www.cbpa.drake.edu/bmeyer/webm120/PPT_Crashing.pdfPhillips, Joseph. Project Cost Management. 2010. Retrieved March 15th, 2010 from Website http//www.projectsmart.co.uk/project-cost-management.htmlRaz, Tzvi and Erez, Michael. Benchmarking the use of project risks management tools. Proceedings of the project management instal Annual Seminars and Symposium.1999.

Credibility and Uses of Psychological Experimental Evidence

Credibility and Uses of Psychological Experimental enjoinAbstractExperimental psychology is the aspect of mental science that explores the human brain and its perceptions and behaviors with sampleal methodologies and subsequent interpretation of the obtained results. Again, evidence-based approach pattern in psychology is the integration of the best available research with clinical expertise in the condition of patient characteristics, culture, and preferences (Ameri rear Psychologist, 2006). This definition is in line with the one advocated by the Institute of Medicine (2001) that says, Evidence-based practice is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values (Sackett, Straus, Richardson, Rosenberg, Haynes, 2000, p. 147). Experimental psychological research makes use of get the hangled conditions in experiments to conclude about the validity of a hypothesis and evidence-based practice in psychology constitutes a large part of it. This essay attempts to discuss the various experimental evidences used in psychology and form an opinion on the usefulness and credibleness of those evidences.How Good is Psychological Experimental EvidenceEvidences from experimental psychology be of interest to researchers working on human behavior, brain mechanics, neurology, and so on irrespective of where these are performed either within the laboratory or outside of it, human beings form the major part of the experiment. The primary goals of experimental psychological research are to be most cost effective, improve note and increase accountability. However, the psychological communityincluding both scientists and practitionersis concerned that evidence-based practice initiatives non be misused as a justification for inappropriately restricting access to care and choice of treatments (American Psychologist, 2006).Experimental psychology and its psychological approaches broadly deal with psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and cognitive psychology. Since psychoanalysis explores the read/write head and explains its behavior, it is of prime importance that said, it has been argued that psychoanalysis is overrated, as it is only able to explain the behavior after it has occurred and not make any helpful advance predictions. behaviourism explains a wide range of behaviors from language usage to moral values using the principles of behavior shaping, generalization, reinforcement etc. Behaviorists were able to come up with middling consistent predictions but absolute predictions for individuals was not possible. Cognitive psychology, on the some other hand, follows a very scientific approach to explain primarily non-discernable mental processes through experiments and models.The empirical approach to psychology is questioned by the advocates of the humanistic approach who lay emphasis on individual conscious experience and disregard experimental evidence. They sieve on subjective perception and understanding rathe r than objective reality. The argument put forward by the humanists says that human behavior is the sum of ones feelings and aura, and is shaped by the perception and understanding of ones environment. Thus, humanists contend the experimentalists on the premise that a perspective of the whole someone is important to go down on any outcome one should look through the observer lens as well as the observed lens.The humanists are advocates of free ordain and reject determinism they do not support scientific approach and are not concerned with predictions and control over human behavior. The right of the individual to control and dissect ones own behavior is endorsed by humanists. In Psychology as a Means of Promoting Human Welfare, Miller criticizes the compulsive view of psychology, suggesting that understanding should be the main goal of the subject as a science, as he asks, who will do the controlling and whose interests will be served by it? (Miller, 1969).Psychological experim ental evidence can be valid in evidence based practice as it gives a data fate on the theories that are being explored. It is about integrating individual clinical expertise and the best external evidence (Sackett, Straus, Richardson, Rosenberg, Haynes, 1996). Thus the external evidence provided by scientific approach like statistical methods is helpful in making deductions that in turn assist in forming the foundation for evidence based medicine. An experiment by Cathy Faulkner, to substantiate the use of confidence intervals for estimation is a case in point. In her study, she asked a group of leading clinical researchers to think of a clinical trial that they have designed and then to think of the most central question in the trial. 81% of the respondents thought that it was is there an effect? then(prenominal) she asked them to rate the importance of three possible questions 1) is there an effect? (2) How large is the effect, and (3) how clinically important is the effect? G iven those prompts her expert respondents rated all three as highly important. In other words, their first response was influenced by their automatic dichotomous thinking but when prompted they immediately recognized that a trial psychological therapy is only useful if it tells us how large an effect the therapy is likely to give and how clinically important that is. So, estimation, meaning confidence intervals, is what we need for fullest information about the surface of an effect and the best basis for assessing its clinical importance (Cumming, 2012).The value of experimental evidence lies in the fact that it is able to provide a basis for coming(prenominal) research and enable replication of the same, wherein a number of psychologists, after skillful experimentation would come up with similar answers. For example, in experiments on effects of do drugs habits, the experimental results would almost always validate stress as a consequence of drug abuse. Thus by replication of re sults and consequent corroboration of facts, a theory is likely to gain acceptance.Nonetheless, the limitations of the empirical approach following a specific scientific methodology are many Since psychology deals mostly with humans, and no two human conditions can be the same, the results are never absolute. Moreover, human behavior changes with time and so would the results of experiments.In establishing causes for incidents, psychologists take the deterministic view and give the axe the peripheral variables that influence human behavior and ones they have no control over.Also the range of paradigms in psychology makes it difficult to advocate a general law for any occurrence/observation.Again, since most of the parameters are unobservable, like memory, and some immeasurable, testability becomes an issue in such experiments.Whenever psychologists involved in research or practice move from observations to inferences and generalizations, there are inherent risks of idiosyncratic i nterpretations, overgeneralizations, confirmatory biases, and similar errors in judgment (Dawes, Faust, Meehl, 2002). Objectivity is almost impossible in some cases. Thus, organic to use of psychological experimental evidence and clinical expertise is an awareness of the limits of ones knowledge and skills and attention to the heuristics and biases both cognitive and affectivethat can affect clinical judgment (American Psychologist, 2006).Judgmental errors and volatility of psychological experimentation is exhibited deceasely in the 1971 Stanford prison experiment led by researcher Phillip Zimbardo, held in the basement of the psychology building at Stanford University. The objective of this experiment was to test a hypothesis on prison behavior, how captivity influences and changes an individuals response and behavior. Zimbardo and his team wanted to find out if the cause of abusive behavior in prisons was the inherent personality traits of the prison officials. The participants of the prison simulation experiment, including Zimbardo himself got so rivet in the characters they were playing (after sessions of de-individualization, disorientation and de-personalization) that it turned dangerous for the them and they were forced to stop it after 6 days. However, it was concluded that the situation is the biggest influence on a persons behavior rather than the individuals character.The Stanford prison experiment was an eye opener for ethical issues regarding psychological experiments using living subjects. It led to insane asylum of better safeguards for the participants and meticulous scrutiny before embarking on experiments. It became imperative to demonstrate the necessity of the experiment and show how it would contribute to the advancement of psychology, and also provide clear option of opting out of the set up if it gets uncomfortable for the subject. Concerns on informed consent have also been dealt with to uphold the safety and health of subjects. Se veral other pioneering experiments like Stanley Milgrams Obedience to authority experiment in 1974, Ivan Pavlovs classical Conditioning experiment way back in 1903, Henry Harlows Emotional Attachment in rhesus monkeys have employed living subjects the answerability thus automatically escalates when using such participants.In conclusion, it is clear that psychological experimental evidence plays an integral part in the progress of psychology however, the researcher needs to strike a balance and critically decide on the need for empirical approach in preference to humanistic approach. Studies designed to investigate the credibility of psychological theories and explain certain behavior patterns by insulate situational controls using living subjects (human or animal) need to be handled with utmost care and precaution. The researcher should be in a position to adequately address any ethical issues that world power arise out of the experimental set up. It is to be borne in mind that hu mans are prone to error and judgment might be prejudiced in some cases it is important to be prepared for these contingencies. To tackle the concerns from humanists and warrant the use of experimental evidence, Slife and Williams (1995)have suggested We need to try at least(prenominal) to strive for scientific methods because we need a rigorous discipline. If we abandon our search for unified methods, well lose a sense of what psychology is. We need to nourishment trying to develop scientific methods that are suitable to studying human behavior it may be that the methods adopted by the natural sciences are not appropriate for us.ReferencesAmerican Psychologist, Vol 61(4), May-Jun 2006, 271-285.Cumming, G. (2012, June). Australian Psychological Society. Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http//www.psychology.org.au/inpsych/2012/june/cumming/Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., Meehl, P. E. (2002). Clinical versus actuarial judgment. In T. Gilovich D. Griffin (Eds.), Heuristics and biases The psychology of intuitive judgment (pp. 716 729). New York Cambridge University Press.Institute of Medicine. (2001).Crossing the quality chasm A new health system for the 21st century. Washington, DC National Academies Press.Miller, George A. Psychology as a means of promoting human welfare. American Psychologist, Vol 24(12), Dec 1969, 1063-1075.Sackett, D. L., Straus, S. E., Richardson, W. S., Rosenberg, W., Haynes, R. B. (2000). Evidence based medicine How to practice and teach EBM (2nd ed.). London Churchill Livingstone.Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M., Gray, J. A., Haynes, R. B., Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence based medicine What it is and what it isnt. British Medical Journal, 312, 7172.

Improving personal and professional skills to meet goals

Improving ain and superior aptitudes to meet goalsTo achieve the personal goals and organisational goals each individual needs a coterie of certain(prenominal) skills to carry out his / her duties and responsibilities. The improved level of skills the organisation employees ask, the more the chances of getting goals and objectives achieved. So for both individual and organisation the personal and professional skills advancement everlastingly remains of high importance.The requirement from this assignment is to produce a Personal Development Plan for medium term and demonstrate the steps taken indoors the plan.Explain methods to improve personal and professional skills to meet organisational and own goals and objectives.Personal and professional skills are those skills which are owned by individuals, personal skills are unremarkably by nature, but can be real through certain surgical processes and activities, when an individual give his personal skills for his organisation al or professional goals / objectives, then it is referred as professional skill. The most common personal and professional skills are parley skills, management skills, interpersonal relations, innovative skills, analytical problem solving, decision making, social skills, pro legal activeness and much more.Skills educatement methodSkills development methods and techniques are the activities or actions taken by an individual or an organisation to explore the hidden potential of their employees and confound their capacity more for performing certain task and activities to achieve the organisational goals and objectives. Through skills development methods and techniques increase the knowledge and skills through a consistent process of learnedness and education. A professional development program boosts the individuals career, through travel, research, take a leakshops and seminars and by work with professionals who are baffled. People take up a professional development strain to build their expertise in business, teaching and nursing and contribute to organizational development.Following are the details of various personal and professional skills development methods engage in different organizations to achieve the organizational and individual career goals.Class room Courses / Certificates this method widely used now days at about all good organisations, to provide their employees the opportunity to enhance their skills and learn the latest knowledge through formal class room courses and they are awarded certificate which may help them in getting better positions in future.Crew Development Program is use by the different multi-national organisations, in which they train their catamenia employees working at operational level in order to take some management position at tactic level or strategic level. For specimen Mc Donalds, has a in truth structured program in which they train their crew member for future leadership and management of the come with , and is besides a in truth successful one because 40 % of the top 50 mangers of Mc Donalds worldwide join this organisation as crew member.Training and Development is a blusher method to improve skills of employees, to improve the employees basic skills initially the pre job training is provided and to enhance the capabilities of employees on job training is provided also a series of skill development activities is carried out.Leadership Development Program is an in-chief(postnominal) program in course session in good and well structured organisations. In this program they assume the potential employees for taking over the future management positions and then provide them training, and educate them on how to carry out management activities.Social Gatherings is also an important activity through which these companies try to socialise their employees, and provide them opportunity to attend these gatherings alongside with their families to give them insight on how to socialise wi th different people and for their company they value the most.College / University Placement is the method of skills development in which different organisation arrange different courses for their employees in collaboration with good universities or other floor awarding institutes to cope them with latest knowledge and skills of their field.Award Winning To hold in a healthy competitive environment among their employees which may result in the personal and professional skill development, the method of award winning strategy in which the employees producing good results are awarded benefits (both financial and vertical movement in the management hierarchy) is very helpful. For example Mc Donalds have award winning scheme, employees producing better results are awarded benefits as financial, promotions etc. while to provide their employees an opportunity for distance learning they also have e-learning strategy and online resources.Personal Skill AuditSkills audit is a process that c an be used to unwrap the skill gaps for an individual. The outcome is a training and development needs outline that identifies where training and development programs are needed. Skills audit results inAn regarding of the skills postulate and the gaps the organization currently has.A targeted analysis of development needs.A listing of skills which need development.Information that can be used for dynamic succession planning.Skills Audit manikinI have developed the following skills audit form, after completion of this form this provides me clear deduceing of my current skills level, my strengths and weaknesses and will definitely help in identification of theSkills Audit Form1 = wide experience3 = a little experience5 = dont know2 = some experience4 = no experienceName DateWork as part of a team1234build and develop working relationships with schoolman staff, peers and colleagueswork efficaciously with others to complete tasks and achieve resultsempower others to work togethe r as part of a team or grouprecognise and understand when compromise and accommodating others is necessaryinteract well with others and work co-operatively as a team memberunderstand how to pucker the attention of others in a team or group when requiredunderstand how to contribute effectively and co-operatively with others even if they do not share the same ideas and ways of working enunciate self effectively in a group and in one-to-one situationshave an understanding of team rolesUse your problem solving abilities1234use an appropriate approach to questioning in order to gain information from which to draw conclusionsuse an objective approach to look up to others in order to achieve goalsmake good use of verbal reasoning skills, able to handle complex data and make selective use of informationexplore more than one solution in order to solve a problem train the ideas of others to help solve problemsmanage the process of problem solving over a period of timedemonstrate resilience and lateral thinking abilities when applied to problem solvingApply your communication skills, both orally and written, and use ICT12345understand the differences in presenting types of documents, e.g. reports, essays, dissertations, summariescheck written work for errors before entrancewayuse a range of ICT packages to support workexpress and convey ideas appropriately and accurately in writingsuccessfully give a notification or demonstrationdemonstrate that information being received is understood by using a range of verbal and non-verbal signalsunderstand when people have taken account of your views and you of theirsReflect upon and review your own personal and career development12345recognise and develop skills and competencies required for learning and future employmentdevelop opportunities for learning activities through current and future rolesrecognise the importance and value of activities outside the curriculum, e.g. work experience, sports, clubsidentify when extra supp ort and help may be usefulunderstand the importance of actively reviewing and discovering your own development plan in order to toughened appropriate learning targetsmaintain positive attitudes to work and understand when a task has not been completed well and identify deepens for the futureunderstand how to gain feedback on work or performanceWork autonomously and set your own goals12345aspire to and maintain a results-driven approach where appropriatefocus on results and performance indicators and use different strategies to achieve targetsapply suitable approaches and put in extra effort if required in order to meet tight deadlineswork without close supervision and use own initiativeidentify resources required to complete a set taskharness motivation and hard work to assist in the completion of work objectivesPlan, monitor and evaluate in order to influence change12345make use of effective planning and preparation in order to anticipate and overcome problemsmaintain effectiven ess in changing environmentsmake appropriate adjustments when undertaking tasksset own goals and review these systematicallyadjust to meet different work styleswork alongside colleagues in different environmentsDevelop time management and organisational skills12345establish a course of action for self and others to achieve goalsplan and prepare effectively for assignments, including use of appropriate resourcesplan day in order to manage time more effectivelyprioritise own and others workmeet set deadlines and understand the process required to meet project outcomeskeep track of work schedules and deadlines by applying multi-tasking abilitiescreatively apply your academic knowledge in work and non-work related settings12345generate and recognize best practice and apply imaginative ideas to different situationswork out a preferred course of actionthink laterally and encourage others to do so and consider how they approach an unconventional taskpresent complex and unusual ideas to fri ends and colleaguesUnderstand business environments and other organizations12345understand what is entailed in working in an organizationunderstand the perspectives and expectations of employers, customers, suppliers and employeesappreciate business activities such as selling and marketing, budgeting and finance and how these interrelate with one anotherhave an understanding of business issues, such as profit, revenue, productivity, company imagehave an understanding of own personal budget and awareness of financial trends, e.g. interest orderunderstand how the significance and impact of an organizations internal politics and business strategy can affect everyday workkeep up to date with current affairs affecting businesses

The Place of Destiny, Fate, Free Will and Free Choice in Macbeth Essay

The Place of Fate in Macbeth Shakespeare was wont to employ the supernatural force of share throughout his sad play Macbeth. Let us examine in this essay what we mean by the above statement. In Everybodys Shakespeare Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies, Maynard Mack explains that the witches are associated with fate Except in one phrase (I.3.6) and in the stage directions, the play always refers to the witches as weyard - or weyward - sisters. Both spellings are variations of spiritual, which in Shakespeares time did non mean freakish, but fateful - having to do with the determination of destinies. Shakespeare had met with such creatures in Holinshed, who regularly refers to the supernatural agents with whom Macbeth has dealings as the three sisters, or the three weird sisters, i.e., the three Fates. (185) L.C. Knights in the essay Macbeth explains the place of fate in the decline of Macbeth One feels, says W.C. Curry, that in proportion as the good in him diminishes, his l iberty of chuck up the sponge choice is determined more and more by evil inclination and that he cannot choose the better course. Hence we speak of destiny or fate, as if it were some external force or moral order, compelling him against his will to certain destruction. Most readers have felt that after the initial crime in that location is something compulsive in Macbeths murders and at the end, for all his valiant fury, he is certainly not a free agent. He is like a bear even to a stake, he says but it is not only the besieging army that hems him in he is imprisoned in the world he has made. (102) In Fools of clipping Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy, Northrop Frye stresses the connection between the witches and fate The... ...ey, A.C. Shakespearean Tragedy. New York Penguin Books, 1991. Coles, Blanche. Shakespeares Four Giants. Rindge, NH Richard R. Smith Publisher, Inc., 1957. Coursen, H. R. Macbeth a Guide to the Play. Westport, CN Greenwood Press, 1997. Frye, Northrop. Fools of Time Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada University of Toronto Press, 1967. Knights, L.C. Macbeth. Shakespeare The Tragedies. A Collectiion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964. Mack, Maynard. Everybodys Shakespeare Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln, NB University of Nebraska Press, 1993. Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http//chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin. Wilson, H. S. On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada University of Toronto Press, 1957.

Othello - Values And Attitudes :: essays research papers

"If Othello didnt begin as a play about race, history has made it one."The Venetian society that Othello is develop in is representative of the writers context. The attitudes and values that Shakespeargon reveals through the text be those same attitudes and values of Elizabethan society in England in the sixteenth-century. Although Othello is set in Venice and Cyprus, the attitudes and values shared in the text are probably reflective of the attitudes and values of Shakespeares own society. It is difficult to assess the attitudes and values of people in sixteenth-century Britain to the relatively few blacks living amongst them. We are given an insight into those attitudes and values through the representation of race and gender in the text of Othello.These attitudes and values are indicative of what a culture believes in and supports. By the time Othello was written the English were becoming more and more aware of the existence of other races in the world besides themselve s.There had been a lot of travelling and blacks were beginning to be used in Europe for the slave trade. During the time the play was written, the faggot of England had banned all blacks from entering the city. She spoke of them as "Negars and Moors which are crept into the realm, of which kind of people there are already here too many". It seems that Shakespeare is roughly mocking the Queen by characterising Othello as a black man who has a high ranking position in the Army and who marries a flannel aristocratic women, against her fathers will.Ruth Cowlig suggests that the presentation of Othello as the hero must have been startling for Elizabethan audiences. This may have been the case, but through the representation of Othello we are able to see that some members of society such as the Duke, looked over his vividness to assign him his position whereas, others such as Iago, look on his colour as a way to mock him.Hostility is shown to Othello by characters such as Iago and Roderigo. This attitude may have been encouraged by the widespread dogma in the legend that blacks were descendants of Ham in the Genesis story, punished for sexual excess by their blackness.The Elizabethans discussed at length whether this skin colour was delinquent to life in a hot climate or whether it was a punishment for sin.To the Elizabethans, who thought hierarchically, fair skin was the epitome of beauty and therefore morose skin ranked below it.